Alongside industrialization and urbanization in China, the relaxation of mobile labor force policies and the expansion of the scale of migrant workers mean that the number of left-behind children in rural areas has increased. Left-behind children are those under the age of 18 years who live with only one or neither of their parents for more than 6 months of the year while the parent(s) are away working. The long-term lack of parent–child companionship and unmet basic psychological needs (e.g., a sense of safety, love, and belonging) make the mental health problems of left-behind children more prominent than those of non-left-behind children (M. Xie et al., 2022).
Depression, which is considered an important factor affecting the psychological health development of left-behind children, mainly refers to an individual’s prevailing mood, such as happiness, sadness, or irritability. Depressive mood syndrome is characterized by a persistent negative state of mind, including denial of oneself, pessimism, and loneliness (Malhi & Mann, 2018). Interpersonal relationship theory (Zhao et al., 2020) suggests that the quality of interpersonal relationships has a significant impact on the initiation and maintenance of depression. Specifically, a poorer quality of intimate relationships between left-behind children and their parents, and perceived discrimination in school because of their left-behind status can make children more vulnerable to depression. Furthermore, previous studies have shown that depression is detrimental to the academic development of left-behind children, which leads to poor academic performance (Johnson et al., 2018) and is also associated with sleep disturbances, decreased appetite, and delayed thinking and behavior. Depression can lead to even riskier behaviors—such as self-injury, self-harm, and suicide—which have long-term implications for a child’s mental health and future development (Gureje et al., 2010). However, there has been no systematic discussion of the alleviation mechanism of depression. Thus, this study explored the alleviation factors and mechanism of depression for left-behind children.
Hope is a cognitive or emotional experience of positive expectations for good relationships or goals, which comes from major aspects of children’s life experiences, such as family, social, interpersonal, and learning (Zhang et al., 2022). Because of the long-term parental absence and lack of education being shared at home from parent to child, many left-behind children have difficulty fully satisfying their hope in different aspects of life, and they are more likely to develop learned helplessness, which leads to persistent depression and delayed thinking (Zhang et al., 2022). However, the positive affective trait of hope can be a protective factor for left-behind children in the face of risky situations, motivating them to actively seek a better life (Miller & Powers, 1988; Snyder et al., 1991). Several psychologists have verified hope theory’s (Snyder, 2002) claim that hope can mitigate the effects of depression and support a positive existential perspective (Jordan, 2008; Kim & Lee, 2018; H. Sun et al., 2014).
Life satisfaction is a subjective experience that results from an individual’s overall evaluation of their quality of life, and is an important indicator of mental health (Van Zyl et al., 2018). Studies have found that hope positively influences life satisfaction and quality of life, and that having more positive life experiences tends to mitigate depression (Seo et al., 2018). Individuals experiencing existential depression often neglect the present due to an obsession with the past and an inability to connect with the future or experience good relationships (Salicru, 2021). In contrast, hope and life satisfaction are important protective factors for children facing negative events because they inhibit depression and lead individuals to develop positive visions, actively pursue goals, and perceive more positive emotions. However, most previous studies have conceptualized life satisfaction, hope, and depression into separate models for exploration. In this study we took life satisfaction as an intermediary variable included in the model of the influence of hope on depression to jointly explore the relationships between these variables and their mechanism of action.
Coping style refers to an individual’s behavioral style adopted based on their cognitive response to a stressful event or crisis they are experiencing; it is an important indicator of their environmental adaptability as well as their physical and mental health (P. Sun et al., 2019). Positive coping styles include proactive confrontation, help seeking, and cognitive reappraisal. According to existential theory, using a positive coping style when facing painful, demanding, or challenging life events can mitigate the negative effects of distress (Salicru, 2021). Furthermore, having a positive coping style in the face of problems can help left-behind children with high levels of hope to increase their motivation to pursue goals and enhance satisfaction in the present. Moreover, even among those with lower hope, a positive coping style is a protective factor in crisis situations and can prevent mental health problems (Li et al., 2020).
We examined the mediating role of life satisfaction and the moderating role of positive coping in the relationship between hope and depression among left-behind children in China. Our aim was to explore the mechanism of the role of hope and depression for these children and provide a theoretical reference for further improving the mental health of Chinese children who have been left behind. Specifically, we proposed the following hypotheses:
Hypothesis 1a: Hope will have a significantly positive relationship with life satisfaction and a significantly negative relationship with depression among left-behind children.
Hypothesis 1b: Life satisfaction will have a significantly negative relationship with depression among left-behind children.
Hypothesis 2: Life satisfaction will mediate the relationship between hope and depression among left-behind children.
Hypothesis 3: Positive coping style will moderate the mediating role of life satisfaction in the link between feelings of hope and depression by reducing the effect of hope on life satisfaction, thereby reducing depression, and this effect will be more pronounced when positive coping style levels are higher.
The research model is shown in Figure 1.
Method
Participants and Procedure
We used random sampling to recruit as our study participants left-behind students in Anhui, Shanxi, and Hebei Provinces in China. Among the 611 respondents, 299 (48.94%) were boys and 312 (51.06%) were girls; 109 (17.84%) were in elementary school, 225 (36.82%) were in junior high school, and 277 (45.34%) were in senior high school; 185 (30.28%) were only children (had no siblings) and 426 (69.72%) had siblings; and 506 (82.82%) lived in rural areas and 105 (17.18%) lived in towns. The mean age of the participants was 15 years (SD = 1.77, range = 10–18).
A paper-based questionnaire was used for group administration and the participants were informed of the content and purpose of the study before beginning the survey. The guardians of each participant provided their informed consent and all participants completed the questionnaire independently and voluntarily. Each respondent was paid RMB 5 (USD 0.70) after completing the survey as compensation for the time required for their participation.
Measures
The Children and Adolescent Hope Questionnaire
We employed the Children and Adolescent Hope Questionnaire to examine hope among children and adolescents in different aspects of life (Zhang et al., 2022). The questionnaire consists of 35 statements, such as “I always believe that my parents love me,” “I take the initiative to get to know my classmates,” and “I am often proud of my homework.” Respondents score the items on a 6-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (not at all consistent) to 6 (completely consistent). Total scores are then calculated, with higher scores reflecting higher levels of hope. The reliability and validity of the questionnaire have been established and Cronbach’s alpha internal consistency coefficient in this study was .95.
The Depression Self-Rating Scale for Children
The Depression Self-Rating Scale for Children was developed by Birleson (1981) based on the diagnostic criteria for adult depression, and the Chinese version of this scale was created by Su et al. (2003). The scale has good reliability and validity, and items are rated on a 3-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (not present) to 3 (often present). Sample items are “Looking forward to good things,” “Sleeping well,” and “Always wanting to cry.” After reverse-scoring responses to the positively expressed items, total scores are calculated, with higher scores representing higher levels of depression. Cronbach’s alpha internal consistency coefficient in this study was .77.
The Life Satisfaction Inventory
The Life Satisfaction Inventory is a five-item questionnaire (Pavot & Diener, 2009). The Chinese version of the questionnaire (Wang & Jia, 2021) is scored on a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). A sample item is “I am satisfied with my life.” Total scores are calculated, with higher scores representing a higher level of life satisfaction. The questionnaire has good reliability and validity, and Cronbach’s alpha internal consistency coefficient in this study was .87.
The Simple Coping Style Scale
The Simple Coping Style Scale comprises 20 questions used to examine the tendency of individuals to adopt coping styles (Y. N. Xie, 1998). Items are rated on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 0 (not taken) to 4 (often taken). Sample items include “When I experience setbacks or difficulties in life I use study or other means to relieve the resulting stress.” We used only the subscale assessing positive coping style. The higher the score, the higher is the level of positive coping style. The questionnaire has good reliability and validity, and Cronbach’s alpha internal consistency coefficient in this study was .82.
Data Analysis
The data were analyzed using SPSS 19.0 and the PROCESS macro for testing mediation and moderating effects (Igartua et al., 2021).
Results
Common Method Bias and Descriptive Statistics
We used Harman’s single-factor test to check for common method bias. The results showed that there were 18 factors with eigenvalues greater than 1, with the first factor having an explanatory rate of 22.64%, which is less than the critical criterion of 40%, indicating no significant common method bias existed as a covariate for hope and life satisfaction (see Table 1).
Correlation analyses were conducted for hope, depression, life satisfaction, and positive coping styles among left-behind children. The results showed that there were statistically significant correlations between gender and life satisfaction as well as between gender and depression. Grade level (elementary, junior high, senior high) was statistically significantly correlated with hope and life satisfaction among left-behind children. Hope was significantly and positively correlated with life satisfaction, and life satisfaction was significantly and negatively correlated with depression. Finally, hope and positive coping style were significantly and negatively correlated with depression among left-behind children. Thus, Hypotheses 1a and 1b were supported. Therefore, we set gender as a covariate for life satisfaction and depression, and grade level as a covariate for hope and life satisfaction. Further details are provided in Table 1.
Table 1. Means, Standard Deviations, and Correlations for Study Variables
Note. N = 611. Gender (male = 1, female = 2) and grade level (elementary school = 1, junior high school = 2, senior high school = 3) were set as dummy variables.
** p < .01. *** p < .001.
Hypothesis Testing
We used PROCESS 4.0 Model 7 for analysis, with depression as the dependent variable, hope as the independent variable, life satisfaction as the mediating variable, and positive coping style as the moderating variable. The results (see Table 2) show that life satisfaction significantly and negatively predicted level of depression, and hope significantly and negatively predicted level of depression, suggesting that life satisfaction mediated the relationship between hope and depression among left-behind children, with the mediating effect accounting for 22% of the total effect. Thus, Hypothesis 2 was supported.
Hope significantly and positively predicted life satisfaction among left-behind children. Additionally, the interaction term of hope × positive coping style significantly predicted life satisfaction, indicating that positive coping style played a moderating role in the path of influence on life satisfaction among left-behind children.
Table 2. Results of Moderated Mediation Analysis
Note. N = 611. Gender (male = 1, female = 2) and grade level (elementary school = 1, junior high school = 2, senior high school = 3) were set as dummy variables. CI = confidence interval.
** p < .01. *** p < .001.
To further clarify the specific moderating effect of positive coping style, we calculated the predictive effect of hope on depression in left-behind children at M ± 1 SD for both high positive coping style and low positive coping style. The results (see Figure 2) reveal hope had a significant moderating effect in both contexts; however, the simple slope value was higher for those with high positive coping levels, .64, t = 13.45, p < .001, than for those with low levels of positive coping, .47, t = 10.21, p < .001, suggesting that as positive coping increases, the trend of increasing life satisfaction with increasing hope was significantly accelerated. Therefore, Hypothesis 3 was supported.
Figure 2. Moderating Effect of Positive Coping Style on the Relationship Between Hope and Life Satisfaction
Similar to Dawson (2014), we calculated the mediating role of life satisfaction to elucidate further the specific moderating role of positive coping style. The results indicated that when positive coping styles were greater or less than M ± 1 SD, life satisfaction had a significant mediating effect. However, the strength of the mediating effect increased progressively with increasing levels of positive coping (mediating effect values of .47, .55, and .64, respectively), suggesting that positive coping also facilitated the effect of hope on life satisfaction, thereby reducing depression. The effect was more pronounced when the level of positive coping was high (vs. low). Together, these results further supported Hypothesis 3.
Table 3. The Moderated Mediation Effect of Positive Coping Style
Note. N = 611. CI = confidence interval.
** p < .01. *** p < .001.
Discussion
After controlling for the roles of gender and grade level, we found that hope among left-behind children significantly and negatively predicts their depression levels, a finding that is consistent with previous research (Shuang et al., 2022). There were differences in depression among students by gender: girls experience more depression than boys do (W. Gao et al., 2020), and also differences in hope across grade levels: children in elementary school have higher hope, which may suggest that greater academic and social pressures in junior high and senior high school make it more difficult for students to reach desired goals or focus on the good aspects of their life, which leads to lower levels of hope (Zhu, Sun, et al., 2022).
The Mediating Role of Life Satisfaction
This study found that feelings of hope among left-behind children not only directly and negatively predicted levels of depression but also indirectly predicted depression by facilitating life satisfaction. On the one hand, this result may reflect that hope itself contains the experience of purpose and meaning in daily life, which is an important source of life satisfaction; thus, feelings of hope tend to start from experiences in daily life (Chang et al., 2019). Therefore, hope and life satisfaction reflect those interdependent qualities as well as each individual’s actual experiences. On the other hand, as life satisfaction has a mitigating effect on depression, when the individual’s hope is strengthened, this will further promote their life satisfaction and alleviate the generation of depression. This result validates Snyder’s (2004) qualitative stress theory of depression, which proposes that life satisfaction is an intraindividual factor that, in stressful situations, affects the production of depression in conjunction with hope.
The Moderating Role of Positive Coping Style
To further explore the mechanism of the effect of hope on depression among left-behind children, this study included positive coping style in the mediation model for analysis and found that such a coping style enhances the contribution of hope to life satisfaction. The result is likely due to two reasons: First, individuals who adopt a positive coping style tend to be proactive in coping with daily life events and unexpected situations, and possess the ability to self-regulate when in distress, which, in turn, contributes to consistently higher hope, thus positively influencing life satisfaction (Zhu, Sang, et al., 2022). Specifically, when individuals encounter difficulties, a positive coping style enables them to analyze the problem objectively and to actively seek social help so they can cope more calmly and optimistically and maintain higher levels of life satisfaction.
Second, left-behind children’s hopes are influenced by different aspects of life, such as family, study, interpersonal, and social life (Zhang et al., 2022). Because of the low quality of parent–child communication and insufficient sense of security during their growth process, left-behind children often have different levels of hope in various aspects of life compared to non-left-behind children. This situation also results in negative life experiences, such as frustration and helplessness, when left-behind children face particular difficulties, which negatively affects their overall life satisfaction. However, a positive coping style can help left-behind children objectively assess problems and proactively form solutions even when facing difficulties. Compensating for their lack of hope thus enables them to perceive more positive life experiences.
Practical Implications
First, we recommend focusing on increasing the hope of left-behind children to reduce their depression. Hope originates from multiple aspects of life (e.g., family, interpersonal, academic), and intervention content can be combined with goals or relationship settings in various ways to form targeted intervention programs. For example, schools can conduct educational theme activities on hope or organize learning support groups; adopt home, school, and community linkage means; and use pairing support to promote students’ family, learning, interpersonal, and social hope.
Second, existing educational activities designed to help left-behind children to deal with problems have typically focused on the procurement, development, and internalization of coping styles. They clarify that positive emotions, such as happiness, and negative emotions, such as depression, are not two poles of the same emotion. Rather, the need to perceive a good life, enhance life satisfaction, and prevent the development of problem behaviors, such as Internet addiction, requires training in a positive coping style (X. Gao et al., 2021). For example, group counseling can be adopted to develop positive coping thinking in difficult situations among left-behind children by designing dimensions such as actively facing difficulties, asking for help, cognitive training, and practicing with relevant situations. Further, case services can be adapted to serve students at a deeper level by exploring important events or crises in their past. Exposure therapy or desensitization can enable them to live positively in difficult situations and establish mechanisms to cope positively with difficulties.
Third, when promoting the mental health of left-behind children, different measures and intervention frequencies should be adopted depending on their grade level. For younger students, schools could offer thematic psychology classes once per fortnight or once per week that focus on aspects of life the students can easily perceive (e.g., learning, peer relationships, parent–child relationships). These classes could guide them to perceive the good moments that occur around them. For senior students, schoolteachers could use methods such as sand trays, ouka, or meditation to enable deeper self-understanding, helping students regain a sense of the beauty of the present and aspirations for the future, and anchoring them in the present moment. Focusing on life moments can promote mental health and help students to relieve stress.
Fourth, according to the findings of this study, raising hope in left-behind children can alleviate their depression. This finding may have practical reference value in other child groups as well. Therefore, the generalizability of the findings of this study can be further explored by collecting broader samples in future studies.
Limitations and Future Research Directions
Despite its strengths, this study also has several limitations. We used a cross-sectional research design, and longitudinal or experimental studies could be conducted to ensure internal validity. Second, the data we obtained were all sourced from Chinese left-behind children, and the generalizability of our findings could be further verified with other groups of children (e.g., children at boarding school, children of migrants) in the future.
References
Birleson P. (1981). The validity of depressive disorder in childhood and the development of a self-rating scale: A research report. The Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 22(1), 73–88.
Chang, E. C., Chang, O. D., Li, M., Xi, Z., Liu, Y., Zhang, X., … Chen, X. (2019). Positive emotions, hope, and life satisfaction in Chinese adults: A test of the broaden-and-build model in accounting for subjective well-being in Chinese college students. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 14(6), 829–835.
Dawson, J. F. (2014). Moderation in management research: What, why, when, and how. Journal of Business and Psychology, 29(1), 1–19.
Gao, W., Ping, S., & Liu, X. (2020). Gender differences in depression, anxiety, and stress among college students: A longitudinal study from China. Journal of Affective Disorders, 263, 292–300.
Gao, X., Sun, J., & Xiang, M. (2021). Positive psychological intervention for anxiety, depression and coping in subjects addicted to online games. World Journal of Clinical Cases, 9(14), 3287–3293.
Gureje, O., Uwakwe, R., Oladeji, B., Makanjuola, V. O., & Esan, U. (2010). Depression in adult Nigerians: Results from the Nigerian Survey of Mental Health and Well-Being. Journal of Affective Disorders, 120(1–3), 158–164.
Hayes, A. F. (2018). Partial, conditional, and moderated mediation: Quantification, inference, and interpretation. Communication Monographs, 85(1), 4–40.
Igartua, J.-J., & Hayes, A. F. (2021). Mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: Concepts, computations, and some common confusions. The Spanish Journal of Psychology, 24, Article E49.
Johnson, D., Dupuis, G., Piche, J., Clayborne, Z., & Colman, L. (2018). Adult mental health outcomes of adolescent depression: A systematic review. Depression and Anxiety, 35(8), 700–716.
Jordan, M. R. (2008). Book review & note: A relentless hope—Surviving the storm of teen depression. Journal of Pastoral Care & Counseling, 62(1–2), 178–179.
Kim, Y. J., & Lee, S. J. (2018). A effect of depression on suicide ideation of Chinese university students: Focusing on buffering effect of self-esteem and hope. Advanced Science Letters, 24(3), 2080–2083.
Li, J., Chen, Y., Zhang, J., Lv, M., Valimaki, M., Li, Y., … Zhang, J. (2020). The mediating role of resilience and self-esteem between life events and coping styles among rural left-behind adolescents in China: A cross-sectional study. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, Article 560556.
Malhi, G. S., & Mann, J. J. (2018). Depression. The Lancet, 392(10161), 2299–2312.
Miller, J. F., & Powers, M. J. (1988). Development of an instrument to measure hope. Nursing Research, 37(1), 6–10.
Pavot, W., & Diener, E. (2009). Review of the Satisfaction With Life Scale. In E. Diener (Ed.), Assessing well-being (pp. 101–117). Springer.
Salicru, S. (2021). A practical and contemporary model of depression for our times—A timeless existential clinician’s perspective. Open Journal of Depression, 10(2), 54–89.
Seo, E. H., Kim, S.-G., Kim, S. H., Kim, J. H., Park, J. H., & Yoon, H.-J. (2018). Life satisfaction and happiness associated with depressive symptoms among university students: A cross-sectional study in Korea. Annals of General Psychiatry, 17, Article 52.
Shuang, M., Yiqing, W., Ling, J., Guanzhen, O., Jing, G., Zhiyong, Q., & Xiaohua, W. (2022). Relationship between parent–child attachment and depression among migrant children and left-behind children in China. Public Health, 204, 1–8.
Snyder, C. R. (2002). Hope theory: Rainbows in the mind. Psychological Inquiry, 13(4), 249–275.
Snyder, C. R. (2004). Hope and depression: A light in the darkness. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 23(3), 347–351.
Snyder, C. R., Harris, C., Anderson, J. R., Holleran, S. A., Irving, L. M., Sigmon, S. T., … Harney, P. (1991). The will and the ways: Development and validation of an individual-differences measure of hope. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60(4), 570–585.
Su, L. Y., Wang, K., Zhu, Y., Luo, X. R., & Yang, Z. W. (2003). Norm of the Depression Self-Rating Scale for Children among Chinese urban children [In Chinese]. Chinese Mental Health Journal, 17(8), 547–549.
Sun, H., Tan, Q., Fan, G., & Tsui, Q. (2014). Different effects of rumination on depression: Key role of hope. International Journal of Mental Health Systems, 8(1), Article 53.
Sun, P., Sun, Y., Jiang, H., Jia, R., & Li, Z. (2019). Gratitude and problem behaviors in adolescents: The mediating roles of positive and negative coping styles. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, Article 1547.
Van Zyl, Y., & Dhurup, M. (2018). Self-efficacy and its relationship with life and happiness among university students. Journal of Psychology in Africa, 28(5), 389–393.
Wang, P. F., & Jia, L. Y. (2021). The influence of cognitive reappraisal strategy on the life satisfaction of college students: The mediating effect of network communication [In Chinese]. Psychology Research, 14(6), 565–573.
Xie, M., & Su, C. (2022). Bullying victimization and depression among left-behind adolescents in China: Mediating the role of self-esteem. Social Behavior and Personality: An international journal, 50(4), Article e11361.
Xie, Y. N. (1998). Preliminary study on the reliability and validity of the Simple Coping Style Scale [In Chinese]. Chinese Journal of Clinical Psychology, 1998(2), 53–54.
Zhang, P., Wang, H. B., Li, Z. Z., & Cheng, Z. H. (2022). Development of the Questionnaire for Children and Adolescents’ Hope [In Chinese]. Chinese Journal of Clinical Psychology, 30(1), 30–35.
Zhao, J., Wang, Q., & Xue, X. (2020). The longitudinal associations among perceived discrimination, social initiative, and depressive symptoms in Chinese rural left-behind adolescents. Journal of Adolescence, 81(1), 114–123.
Zhu, C. Q., Sun, R. Y., Huang, F. Y., & Liu, Y. N. (2022). The impact of existential isolation on depression of left-behind college students: A moderated mediation model [In Chinese]. China Journal Health Psychology, 30(4), 498–503.
Zhu, Z., Sang, B., Chen, W., & Liu, J. (2022). Coping style mediates the relationship between psychological capital and depression among senior high school students. Social Behavior and Personality: An international journal, 50(3), Article e11224.
Birleson P. (1981). The validity of depressive disorder in childhood and the development of a self-rating scale: A research report. The Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 22(1), 73–88.
Chang, E. C., Chang, O. D., Li, M., Xi, Z., Liu, Y., Zhang, X., … Chen, X. (2019). Positive emotions, hope, and life satisfaction in Chinese adults: A test of the broaden-and-build model in accounting for subjective well-being in Chinese college students. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 14(6), 829–835.
Dawson, J. F. (2014). Moderation in management research: What, why, when, and how. Journal of Business and Psychology, 29(1), 1–19.
Gao, W., Ping, S., & Liu, X. (2020). Gender differences in depression, anxiety, and stress among college students: A longitudinal study from China. Journal of Affective Disorders, 263, 292–300.
Gao, X., Sun, J., & Xiang, M. (2021). Positive psychological intervention for anxiety, depression and coping in subjects addicted to online games. World Journal of Clinical Cases, 9(14), 3287–3293.
Gureje, O., Uwakwe, R., Oladeji, B., Makanjuola, V. O., & Esan, U. (2010). Depression in adult Nigerians: Results from the Nigerian Survey of Mental Health and Well-Being. Journal of Affective Disorders, 120(1–3), 158–164.
Hayes, A. F. (2018). Partial, conditional, and moderated mediation: Quantification, inference, and interpretation. Communication Monographs, 85(1), 4–40.
Igartua, J.-J., & Hayes, A. F. (2021). Mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: Concepts, computations, and some common confusions. The Spanish Journal of Psychology, 24, Article E49.
Johnson, D., Dupuis, G., Piche, J., Clayborne, Z., & Colman, L. (2018). Adult mental health outcomes of adolescent depression: A systematic review. Depression and Anxiety, 35(8), 700–716.
Jordan, M. R. (2008). Book review & note: A relentless hope—Surviving the storm of teen depression. Journal of Pastoral Care & Counseling, 62(1–2), 178–179.
Kim, Y. J., & Lee, S. J. (2018). A effect of depression on suicide ideation of Chinese university students: Focusing on buffering effect of self-esteem and hope. Advanced Science Letters, 24(3), 2080–2083.
Li, J., Chen, Y., Zhang, J., Lv, M., Valimaki, M., Li, Y., … Zhang, J. (2020). The mediating role of resilience and self-esteem between life events and coping styles among rural left-behind adolescents in China: A cross-sectional study. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, Article 560556.
Malhi, G. S., & Mann, J. J. (2018). Depression. The Lancet, 392(10161), 2299–2312.
Miller, J. F., & Powers, M. J. (1988). Development of an instrument to measure hope. Nursing Research, 37(1), 6–10.
Pavot, W., & Diener, E. (2009). Review of the Satisfaction With Life Scale. In E. Diener (Ed.), Assessing well-being (pp. 101–117). Springer.
Salicru, S. (2021). A practical and contemporary model of depression for our times—A timeless existential clinician’s perspective. Open Journal of Depression, 10(2), 54–89.
Seo, E. H., Kim, S.-G., Kim, S. H., Kim, J. H., Park, J. H., & Yoon, H.-J. (2018). Life satisfaction and happiness associated with depressive symptoms among university students: A cross-sectional study in Korea. Annals of General Psychiatry, 17, Article 52.
Shuang, M., Yiqing, W., Ling, J., Guanzhen, O., Jing, G., Zhiyong, Q., & Xiaohua, W. (2022). Relationship between parent–child attachment and depression among migrant children and left-behind children in China. Public Health, 204, 1–8.
Snyder, C. R. (2002). Hope theory: Rainbows in the mind. Psychological Inquiry, 13(4), 249–275.
Snyder, C. R. (2004). Hope and depression: A light in the darkness. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 23(3), 347–351.
Snyder, C. R., Harris, C., Anderson, J. R., Holleran, S. A., Irving, L. M., Sigmon, S. T., … Harney, P. (1991). The will and the ways: Development and validation of an individual-differences measure of hope. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60(4), 570–585.
Su, L. Y., Wang, K., Zhu, Y., Luo, X. R., & Yang, Z. W. (2003). Norm of the Depression Self-Rating Scale for Children among Chinese urban children [In Chinese]. Chinese Mental Health Journal, 17(8), 547–549.
Sun, H., Tan, Q., Fan, G., & Tsui, Q. (2014). Different effects of rumination on depression: Key role of hope. International Journal of Mental Health Systems, 8(1), Article 53.
Sun, P., Sun, Y., Jiang, H., Jia, R., & Li, Z. (2019). Gratitude and problem behaviors in adolescents: The mediating roles of positive and negative coping styles. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, Article 1547.
Van Zyl, Y., & Dhurup, M. (2018). Self-efficacy and its relationship with life and happiness among university students. Journal of Psychology in Africa, 28(5), 389–393.
Wang, P. F., & Jia, L. Y. (2021). The influence of cognitive reappraisal strategy on the life satisfaction of college students: The mediating effect of network communication [In Chinese]. Psychology Research, 14(6), 565–573.
Xie, M., & Su, C. (2022). Bullying victimization and depression among left-behind adolescents in China: Mediating the role of self-esteem. Social Behavior and Personality: An international journal, 50(4), Article e11361.
Xie, Y. N. (1998). Preliminary study on the reliability and validity of the Simple Coping Style Scale [In Chinese]. Chinese Journal of Clinical Psychology, 1998(2), 53–54.
Zhang, P., Wang, H. B., Li, Z. Z., & Cheng, Z. H. (2022). Development of the Questionnaire for Children and Adolescents’ Hope [In Chinese]. Chinese Journal of Clinical Psychology, 30(1), 30–35.
Zhao, J., Wang, Q., & Xue, X. (2020). The longitudinal associations among perceived discrimination, social initiative, and depressive symptoms in Chinese rural left-behind adolescents. Journal of Adolescence, 81(1), 114–123.
Zhu, C. Q., Sun, R. Y., Huang, F. Y., & Liu, Y. N. (2022). The impact of existential isolation on depression of left-behind college students: A moderated mediation model [In Chinese]. China Journal Health Psychology, 30(4), 498–503.
Zhu, Z., Sang, B., Chen, W., & Liu, J. (2022). Coping style mediates the relationship between psychological capital and depression among senior high school students. Social Behavior and Personality: An international journal, 50(3), Article e11224.